Jane Austen present the reader of Pride and Prejudice Essay

Jane Austen present the reader of Pride and Prejudice with a number of representation of love and marriage, including 2 unsuccessful proposals to Elizabeth Bennett and the relationships of: Mr and Mrs Bennett Jane and Mr Bingley Charlotte and Mr Collins Lydia and Wickham Elizabeth and Mr Darcy Analyse each of the proposals in turn and then discuss what you think Jane Austen’s views on love and marriage were. Pride and Prejudice is one of the most classic love stories of all time. Written by Jane Austen in 1796 when she was just 24, the novel has become a favourite with woman in every generation since. Following the paths of 5 sisters as some come of age and other just grow older in a world where marriage is everything. Around the time of Pride and Prejudice, romantic love wasn’t important. Parents picked a suitor for their children, usually marrying girls off into better off families if they could, financially securing them until death, or so they hope. It was well and truly a mans world in the 1700s, there was no means of a woman creating an independent existence, and so woman relied on marriage in order to lead a half decent life. Elizabeth receives 3 proposals, one from Mr Collins, her cousin, big fan of Lady Catherine DeBurgh and a clergyman, and 2 from Mr Darcy. I will discuss these in detail later in my essay The story follows that of the Bennett family. Mrs Bennett, mother of 5, means well for her daughters, but brings much embarrassment upon them every time she opens her mouth. Mr Bennett, her husband, is the calm that follows the storm that is Mrs Bennett. He is the one his daughters go to when search calm advice, although Mr Bennett does mock the girls’ immature ways. Elizabeth (named â€Å"Lizzie† by close friends and family) and Jane (often referred to as â€Å"Miss Bennett†) are the two older sisters (Jane older than Elizabeth). Then, followed by Mary, then Catherine (or â€Å"Kitty†), then Lydia. Mr and Mrs Bennett are the perfect example of an arranged marriage working out. We can make a guess that the two did get along when first married, but that the relationship was probably built on lust, which after 5 girls, was bound to ware out. As they have been married for so long, they’ve learnt to live with and love each other, like couples were expected to. They annoy and irritate each other, but the Bennett parents love each other despite each other’s embarrassing flaws. The first fresh relationship we come across is that between Jane Bennet and Mr Bingley. There is much gossip following Mr Bingley’s arrival, and when he arrives at a dance in Meryton, the room obviously falls silent. Bingley is a very sweet man, and when he first lays eyes on Jane he’s smitten, and visa versa, and they spend all night dancing. Mary is quite happy with taking up the sidelines, but Kitty and Lydia love all the attention they receive and the non-stop dancing. Elizabeth, on the other hand, does not enjoy herself as much as Mr Darcy refuses to dance with her when Bingley suggests it, and Lizzie overhears. Jane’s story is essentially that of Cinderella. Jane and Mr Bingley were an excellent match, but for Jane there was too bigger social gap. She felt nervous around Bingley, and especially around his family. There were problems, when Mr Darcy believed Jane did not love Bingley as Bingley loved Jane and so convinced Bingley to move away, breaking Jane’s heart. This was part of the reason Lizzie did not take to Darcy. Despite all the problems, Bingley and Jane do marry, but not before Austen made sure her audience sympathized towards Jane, the good-intentioned sister. Jane represents the â€Å"do-good† types that always appear to get everything they deserve (which happens to be everything), which shows these people aren’t just a modern day occurrence, but appear regularly in history. Mr Collins’ proposal to Lizzie was a cringeworthy moment in Pride & Prejudice. His proposal seemed rehearsed, and while Lizzie laughs at him, he leads himself to believe she’s being shy. He tries to convince her by mentioning the fact Longbourne is entailed to him. Lizzie turns him down, but he believes she’s playing hard to get. The entire affair is exceedingly embarrassing as Mr Collins won’t take no for an answer, without realising he isn’t going to get another answer. Following Lizzie turning down his proposal, Mr Collins proposes to Lizzie’s best friend, Charlotte Lucas. Charlotte, unlike Lizzie, accepts in the full realisation that this may by her first and last proposal, and it just wouldn’t be safe to turn it down. This relationship, as it was, was made out to be the example of a safe marriage. It’s not for love, nor money, just simply for security. Charlotte is fully aware that unless out to events, she will never be bothered by Mr Collins, and will be able to lead a safe and quiet life. This is the most realistic marriage out of all other’s in this book when studying typical marriages of the time. Austen writes about Charlotte in a way that makes us feel sympathy for her, and all other women who were forced to marry and spend every living day with someone who’s company they may not even enjoy, but love wasn’t a detail considered important when marrying off children, they were expect to LEARN to love the one they were with. Lydia, being the youngest and giddiest of all the Bennett girls also happened to be the stupidest, when she eloped with Wickham and put a bigger black mark then her mother’s on the family name. Strangely enough, it was Darcy that came to the (silent) rescue. He found Wickham and Lydia, forced them to marry and paid for the whole thing (Lydia loved the entire thing, thinking of it as an adventure, whereas Wickham wasn’t quite so impressed). It’s after this we find out why Darcy dived at the chance to help. Wickham told Lizzie that Darcy had cheated him out of his inheritance from Darcy’s father, when actually, Wickham had tried to elope with Georgina Darcy for HER substantial inheritance. After Elizabeth rejected Mr Collins, he hurriedly married her best friend, Charlotte Lucas, and Elizabeth is invited to visit the newlyweds. While she is staying with them, Darcy visits his aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh, at the adjoining estate, Rosings Park. Elizabeth and Darcy are therefore thrown daily into each other’s company. Elizabeth’s charms eventually entrance Mr Darcy, leading him to finally declare his love for her â€Å"against his own will† and his desire to marry her in spite of her objectionable family. Surprised and insulted by Darcy’s high-handed method of proposing, as well as having recently learnt that Darcy convinced Bingley to sever ties with Jane and still contemptuous of Darcy’s supposed wrongs against Wickham, Elizabeth refuses him in no uncertain terms, saying that he is â€Å"the last man in the world whom she could ever be prevailed on to marry.† The next day, Darcy intercepts Elizabeth on her morning walk and hands her a letter before leaving on a cold note. In the letter, Darcy justifies his actions regarding his interference in Bingley and Jane’s relationship, and reveals his history concerning Mr Wickham and Wickham’s true nature. The letter sheds a new light on Darcy’s personality for Elizabeth and she begins to reconsider her opinion of him, particularly in the case of Wickham. Then, while on holiday with her aunt and uncle, the Gardiners, Elizabeth is persuaded to visit Pemberley, Darcy’s estate, while he is away. She is therefore mortified when she bumps into him unexpectedly while on a tour of the grounds. However, his changed attitude towards her shows in his behaviour, distinctly warmer than last time, and his polite and friendly manner towards her aunt and uncle begins to persuade Elizabeth that underneath his pride lies a true and generous nature. Her fresh opinion of Darcy is supported through meeting his younger sister Georgiana, a gentle-natured and shy girl whom Darcy lovingly dotes upon. THEN to top off this new improved Darcy, he finds Wickham and Lydia, and makes sure they marry therefore causing no slander towards the family name. Austen wrote in Darcy as the negative force, and Lizzie as the good, they were bound to come together, but it couldn’t happen without some toing-and-froing. In my opinion, both Lizzie and Darcy are negative, but they were destined for each other from Meryton. Both Jane and Lizzie end up marrying for love, but they both end up marrying someone in a substantially higher class, whereas Lydia, like her mother, married for lust (Wickham on the other hand married for money). Jane Austen wrote this book for entertainment, and perhaps to show the audience that things could be different if a little more respect was paid to women. But also, i think Austen wrote this book with an idea to mock the ridiculous social rules of the time. Writing a story like this placed her way ahead of her time anyway, as the plot is still very relevant today, but was she so ahead of her time that she could see the circus that was the social circuits and the jail-marriages some women were forced to dwell into.

Why and how do writers of English Literary and playful texts “break the rules of” English?

After having defined the terms â€Å"playful and literary†, I will then look briefly at foregrounding and the classification of the English Language. Then rhyme, rhythm and repletion would be examined followed by how writers break syntactic rules to show thought process. This will be followed by literary usage of the metaphor, collocation and iconicity. Then I will examine playful text in relation to graffiti, newspapers and advertising. Literary and playful usage of language is different from that of everyday language in that it draws attention to the language itself. Writers achieve this by being creative, original and imaginative. Moreover, by â€Å"skilfully manipulating language to create patterns and usage† to express ideas, which draws the readers giving them an original insight into the world of the writer. (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 198) Writers of literary and playful text use language to draw attention to it by way of surprising the reader into an original perception of the language and the subject matter. This according to the Russian formalists is foregrounding (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 163). Foregrounding is achieved, by breaking the rules of language, that is sound, grammar and meaning to place the reader in the text. Thus, the reader is surprised into seeing the image, hearing the sounds and feeling the emotions. The English Language is classified according to the way words are arranged in sequence and it is referred to as a subject verb object or SVO language. This is because the subject always comes before the verb and the object that is being referred to follows the verb. (Graddol etal. , 1994, p. 5) Looking first at rhyme, rhythm and repetition in literary usage, writers especially poets use this as a form of foregrounding. They use rhyme, rhythm and repetition in to make original observations. As in William Blake's poem â€Å"The Tyger†, one can see that there is an end rhyme with the first line rhyming with the second, and the third with the fourth in an aabb pattern. This is not something is common in normal speech or text. Therefore, Blake, whilst following the tradition of writing poetry in end rhymes is breaking the rules of English. Blake does this because he is not only foregrounding the symmetrical pattern of the verse in its aabb rhymes pattern, but he is also highlighting the eye symmetry of the text. This is done in the first and last stanza where both stanzas are symmetrical apart from one word. Thus, there is a sense of closure and we understand that we have arrived at an end, but because of the aabb pattern, there is also continuity and the idea of the circle of life. Blake also uses rhythm, with each line consisting of four alternating stressed and unstressed words, is used to emphasis the beat of not only the tread of the Tyger but also the rhythmical beating of the hammer on the anvil. The creator of the Tyger and the creator of the poem also use repetition and alliteration to foreground the symmetry of the design. (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 165) Authors also use rule breaking to foreground their characters thought processes. William Faulkner In his novel â€Å"The Sound and the Fury† manipulates the language and surprises the readers into the thought process of the narrator Benjy, who thinks and voices his thoughts, as would a child. He achieves this flow of thought process by omitting the object after the verb. Thus, the reader is uncomfortable with the language, which is limited, showing and creating a sense of incompleteness. This is exactly what Faulkner is aiming for, because Benjy although being thirty-three, is incomplete and exhibits the thought and language process that of a child. Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 167) The Charles Dickens also breaks the rules governing the syntactic relationship between words. In his novel The Bleak House Dickens does not, use the verb â€Å"is† after the subject, which is the fog and the object, which is everywhere and everything. By doing this, he foregrounds the reader into an innovative outlook and the reader receives the impression that there is no escaping from the fog; it is all invasive invading the countryside, the social, cultural and political environment. (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 167) Another distinctive feature of literary usage is the metaphor and collocation. Metaphors are comparisons that are not made explicit. They exploit the meanings of words and â€Å"are slipped into â€Å"the sentence (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 165). The rules of English are broken by the metaphor by playing on the various meanings of a word and the paradigmatic relationship of a word. As in the use of â€Å"burning† and â€Å"burnt† in Blake's The Tyger the words not only refer to the eyes of the Tyger but also to the furnace and the stars when speared are also burning too such an extent that they water the heaven with their tears. Collocation refers to the combining tendencies of words† (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 169) that is, the relationship words have with each other, the meanings that are associated with words and in the context that they are normally used. When this rule is broken, the writers are able to utilise our sense of word collocation to foreground â€Å"unusual and striking association of meaning† (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 169). In Carol Ann Duffy's poem ‘Litany' metaphors and collocation is used when she writes â€Å"The terrible marriages crackled cellophane round polyester shirts†. Marriages do not crackle. The word crackle is usually associated with dry inanimate objects; it is this association, which surprises the reader into looking at the marriage in a new light. The metaphor of the cellophane and polyester shirts continue this theme of inanimateness, dead and lifeless as opposed to the marriage being alive and thriving. Collocation is also associated with playful usage of English as in Punning. This occurs when the different meanings of the words are exploited, as in â€Å"My Children! My Africa! Here the Playwright plays on the word ‘riot' to emphasis the difference in culture and explores the difference in meaning associated to a word by differing social groups. (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 171) Another feature of literary usage is the iconic â€Å"where the sounds and shapes of words and phrases imitate particular objects or process† (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 172) writers use this device in order for the reader to experience and hear the sounds being described. Wordsworth in ‘The Prelude' uses it to call upon the simple childhood pleasure of making oneself dizzy. He does this by having a long sentence where the subject and verb occur late in the passage. This achieves the effect of rushing and spinning to an abrupt stop. In addition, one can almost imagine that even though we have stopped the â€Å"solitary cliffs Wheeled by†¦ the earth rolled†¦ † (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 172) e e cummings uses this technique in his poem I (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 202) He relies on the visual effect of the poem to emphasis the falling of one leaf and its oneness. Playful text also uses language to draw attention to it this is achieved, by breaking the rules of language, that is sound, grammar and meaning Just like in literary usage. Graffiti although regarded as being antisocial and illegal is an area where English is used in a playful and entertaining way to highlight a particular comment on social issues or give voice to those sub groups that have been denied access to mainstream. Because of the very nature of graffiti, it tends to be short and succinct. The Graffiti â€Å"Glory to God in the High St† (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 10) by deleting a single letter from the angel's message to the Shepard's, the graffiti satirises the original Christmas message and reflects the commercialization of Christmas. This is achieved by playing on the sounds and the meaning of the two words Highest and High St. An example of iconic graffiti that is a thought process would be â€Å"Dsylexia rules KO† The popular press also use puns and word play in their headlines e. g. â€Å"Belly Nice (model Naomi Campbell with bare stomach), Wedding Prez (President Clinton unexpectedly attends a wedding)† (Maybin and Mercer, 1996, p. 17). They by virtue of being tabloid newspapers need to capture the readers' attention quickly and be able to express in a short headline the nature of the article. Therefore, by using headlines like â€Å"Belly Nice† they play on the phrase â€Å"very nice† in referring to the bare stomach and associating it to her second name Campbell. Another area that breaks the rules of English in a playful way is advertising. Advertising uses all the literary techniques of foregrounding to sell the product, image or idea. In the P&O advertisement, the text is simple; it has rhyme, rhythm and repetition, and seems at first glance to be a simple, child's first reader. However, each line does not have the object. It is only at the end that one realises that the last word is the object of the previous lines. In conclusion after having looked at the various distinctive features of literary and playful usage of text one can see that writers, poets, graffiti writers, journalist and the advertisers use and break the rules of English to foreground there ideas in a creative, original and imaginative way.

Hiv / Aids And Aids Essay -- AIDS, Immune system, HIV, South Africa

The entirety of the population of South Africa has been adversely affected by HIV/AIDS both in regards to the health of the people, and the economy of the country (Barks-Ruggles). For a few years now, the GDP of South Africa seems to have peaked in 2010, and has consistently lowered since. While not all of this is the result of HIV/AIDS, some of it is related. HIV/AIDS can affect the economy of South Africa in many ways, one such way is that it can it can lead to the death of many current and potential workers. As of 2015, the percentage of HIV prevalence in the population of population of South Africa is 19.1 (HIV). Another concern for the economy of South Africa comes from how productivity could be... ... middle of paper ... ...s languages of South Africa, who could teach communities about the virus, and could teach them how to treat those with the disease themselves would be a great step forward. I would also advise that we set up more clinics trained to help those with HIV/AIDS in areas of South Africa where it is most prevalent, such as KwaZulu-Natal, where as of 2009 around 39 percent of the adult population are infected (Dugger). If the areas with the highest amount of those with HIV/AIDS are targeted, it could lead to the information being spread out from there. The charity program AVERT based out of Brighton, United Kingdom, has been suggesting similar ideas, and is currently focusing their efforts towards helping those in the hotspots in South Africa. In short, HIV/AIDS must be combated if the world, let alone South Africa, wants to be able to control the rate at which it is spread.

Choose one of the 19th century historical figures of the American Research Paper

Choose one of the 19th century historical figures of the American Civil War - Research Paper Example Harriet Beecher Stowe stated clearly that she believed that the horrors that were experienced during the American Civil War were defined by a type of justice that was afflicted upon those who had owned slaves the same kind of terrible conditions that slaves had suffered under their master’s ownership. The condition of legalized slavery was intolerable to Stowe who wrote about her point of view on the subject in her book Uncle Tom’s Cabin. The work was used to ignite a passion for the abolitionist movement, a source for relating to the inhumane treatment that was experienced by those who were subjected to the slavery of the South. Stowe came out of obscurity to write a story that could provide a framework for the slavery experience, a tale that expressed to the Caucasian public a point of view that had not been considered by many. Through the power of her beliefs about the wrong of slavery, Stowe participated in motivating the public into action against the terrible cond itions that had allowed one culture to put another into ownership and slavery. Stowe was born on June 11, 1811 and died on July 1 1896 having written her seminal work, Uncle Tom’s Cabin and published it after she turned 40 in the year 1851. She was born Harriet Elizabeth Beecher and was the daughter of a famous minister, Lyman Beecher with her sister being growing to be a famous educator, Catherine Beecher. She married Calvin Stowe in 1836 and bore seven children, one of which died at a very young age from cholera (Claire Parfait, The Publishing History of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 7-8). Stowe was originally a teacher, writing her first book which was a text book, Primary Geography for Children, in 1833. She became part of a writing group, Semi-Colon, in Cincinnati and used the forum to submit her writings in order to improve her skills. In 1834 her work began to appear in a Cincinnatti weekly paper called Chronicle. She also wrote for the Western Monthly and The Evangelist, a religious magazine out of New York. While she wrote because she loved the experience of writing, she made a small income that supplemented that of her husbands. When in 1837 her husband’s salary was cut due to a financial crisis, she began to work to increase her income through devoting herself to becoming a professional writer (Parfait, The Publishing History, 9).

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Criminal Conduct and Criminal Law - Essay Example The consideration of mens rea is important because it separates those crimes that were committed willfully, and those acts that were accidental. The willful element shows that the person desired the outcome and should be responsible, or the outcome so desired. The lack of the willful element may mean that the outcome was desired and was not even planned for. It is only fair not to punish someone for an act they did by mistake, and they did not even desire the outcome. However, at times, the law has to go a step further and see whether the outcome was foreseeable, or if the person performing the act was so negligent in acting that he could not even consider the occurrence of the act. If a person pulls a trigger of a loaded gun to check whether the gun is working, he will be responsible for the murder or injury that is occasioned if the bullet hits somebody. It is only fair that people be held criminally liable for criminal acts that occur due to negligence on their part even if they did not have the requisite mens rea. From the above analysis, it is noted that there is no clear answer on whether a person is criminally liable or not considering the lack of mens rea. Each case is to be in light of the prevailing circumstances (Herring, 2013). Legislative immunity is immunity that is accorded to legislators in parliament in the process of passing laws. Legislative immunity applies to actions that the legislators may do, or words said in the process of formulating legislation. Legislative immunity is important because it accords the legislators protection from being sued for libel arising out of words spoken in Parliament. However, it is to be noted that this immunity is not absolute and can be removed by the courts on application by an interested party. The parliament can also remove the immunity through amending the law, although this will not act retrogressively. Legislative immunity is meant to ensure freedom of speech during

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Responsibility of a Critical Thinker in a Contemporary Society Research Paper

Responsibility of a Critical Thinker in a Contemporary Society - Research Paper Example The responsibility and roles of a critical thinker in a contemporary Society is majorly to sparks, re-energizes and invigorate the change nucleus or focus in the outlined society highlighting on various segment that need change and providing timely change as treated relevant to the discipline. They question the relevance of doing things in the traditional or conventional mode. Every sector has established professionals with in-depth knowledge regarding the segment, but that does not mean that an unqualified person cannot question. Realization of moral reasoning, an entailed and research-based for search of truth and corresponding quest for entailed data gathering of information technology is highly imperative. Various models of thinking are either disregarding established model in the society or blindly following the wrong route. For instance, there are established fallacies like appeal to tradition, which may compel the father to control the household wrongly believing that traditions empower him. Such traditions are subject to control since they fail to avail the exact picture required in contemporary life. Fathers are human beings, and their findings and decisions can be challenged by the children or even the mother in the house (Platzer, Blake & Ashford, 2000). Clear review of issues with concerns on whether they contribute to a positive development o f the society or they lower the standards expected. Reorganization of most households is in dire need of a transformative model to change the current system into positive and encouraging models. Violence, depressions and physical abuse are quite inherent in most households, and suicides are also common cases while focusing on the mainframe family issue. Immigration comes in handy with numerous evils and notable perils on immigrant’s lives. Other social ills propagated by absence of critical in the

Types of Soil Essay Example for Free

Types of Soil Essay This is how one sixth-grader describes the way of playing video games. Such video games can seem like harmless fun, but what if the violence gets personal and addicts young teenagers, affecting their behavior and their view of reality? Some studies have shown that violent game players just do not leave it there on their game screens; they transfer the violent acts they get attached to, to the real world. Violent games have been shown to increase game player’s quest to experiment how all that stuff will look like in the real world. There is no doubt that violent video games have no effect on certain people, but for the most and especially in teenagers, the effects are negative and have led to fatalities and destruction of properties in certain instances. Although some parents claim that violence video games have bad effects on teenagers because they’re behavior changes, teenagers play too much violent games because they are very addicting. Some parents say that violent video games have bad effects on young teenagers. But most video- game players have normal lives. Most important, just because a player does not instantly take or follow violence found in video games does not mean the games will not have negative result on that player’s views and behavior. The violent games will have negative effects on teenagers. Young teenager’s behavior will have a big change. Because of this case, parents should be responsible for buying video games and should forbid young teenagers from buying those games that are violent. If parents do not take the responsibility than teenagers do not know what they are doing and what is good for them. Before teenagers take a big wrong step, parents should be there to take care of the situation. I have a little nephew in seventh grade and he loves violence video games. He loves playing call of duty. My aunt always gives him the money to buy any game that he likes. He loves the smell of money. She never checks to see what game he might have bought. Because of her not being responsible, my little cousin always gets into school fights with other children. So every parent must be responsible for their own child. Some parents say that violent video games have bad effects on young teenagers because a number of people claim that playing a violent video game does present a bad threat to user’s health. For an example, I have a younger brother who is seventeen years old. He loves playing violent video games. Every day, when he is home from school with his spiky brown hair, he starts playing the WrestleMania game. He does not eat anything and he talks to himself while playing the game. He does not realize that his behavior is changing by playing violent video games. One time, he tried to kick me in my stomach but a police man saw him and told him to stop. My parents made him quit playing violent video-games. Ever since he stopped playing violent video games his behavior has changed a lot. He now realizes he was out of control and it is all because of the violent video games. He sold his Xbox to one of his close friends. I am glad my parents took good care of it because it is their responsibility to look after their son. Some parents say that violent video games have bad effects on young teenagers because; there was a shooting in Colorado movie theatre. Twelve people were killed and fifty eight were injured by a graduate student. The guy who killed all these people was a very educated man. But he lost his sense of humor. He was out of control. People thought that the shooting was a part of the movie also. He was dressed up as the joker from the movie batman. Later the doctors found out he had some type of brain damage watching too much violent movies and playing games. So, he was not okay in his head. His behavior made so many people lose their lives. So many people lost their loved ones that day. And again violent community and games can damage people’s brains. Some parents say that violent video games have good effects on young teenagers because violent games can be new information to some teenagers, because it is something new and different from their daily lifestyle. They think violent games can help their child with memorization because it provides pretty text to look at. The video games have nice graphics for teenagers. It helps a teenager look at new information and advances them. Some parents think that teenagers learn better by looking at graphics and text that are provided by violent games. Parents think new and different inspires teenagers and games inspire them in a good way. But mostly business owner parents are saying this. But at the end of the day, it is every parent’s job to be responsible for their own child. Parents should pay more attention to their children while children are playing violent video games.

Explain each Stakeholder Essay Example for Free

Explain each Stakeholder Essay

Gene-ablation and other genetic technique

Gene-ablation and other genetic technique How has the use of gene-ablation and other genetic techniques in mice altered our approach to scientific problems in pharmacology and physiology? 280 pts (8-12 pages, 11pt Arial font, double spaced) A gene is a region of DNA that controls a discrete hereditary characteristic, usually corresponding to a single protein or RNA1. Most scientists are interested in determining how genes, and the proteins they encode, function in the intact organism. One of the most direct ways to find out what a gene does is to see what happens to the organism when that gene is missing. Because mutations can interrupt cellular processes, mutants often hold the key to understanding gene function. A well accepted strategy for evaluating gene function is to create and characterize a gene knockout mouse. Virtually any gene in the germ line can be mutated through gene targeting in totipotent embryonic stem (ES) cells or to use gene ablation technology to knock-out either a specific gene or a specific cell type in an intact animal2. Both of these methods offer almost unlimited possibilities for addressing questions concerning the molecular and cellular biology of development, the relationship between geneti cs and biological function, unraveling the causes of disease, and enhance pharmaceutical research. ES cells are a versatile source of cells for repair of damaged and defective tissues in the adult body2. Totipotent embryonic stem cells have been used in vitro to generated precursors for oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. Transplantation of these ES cells into a model mouse of human myelin disease allowed the precursors to interact with host neurons and efficiently myelinate axons in brain and spinal cord. Further investigation of this mechanism could lead to pharmacological, physiological and therapeutic treatments. ES cells also make possible the most precisely controlled forms of genetic modification, allowing animals to be created with virtually any desired alteration introduced into their genome2. One way to produce a transgenic (knockout) animal is through gene targeting in totipotent ES cells. By incorporating a null allele into one allele of murine ES cells, and injecting these cells into early mouse embryos, one can create chimeric mice (heterozygous for the knockout allele) containing tissues derived from both host cells and ES cells2. Mating the chimeric mice allows one to confirm that the null allele is incorporated into the germ line and can breed these heterozygous chimeric mice to homogeneity producing progeny that are homozygous knockout mice2. A knockout mouse generated to carry a mutating apolipoprotein E (apoE) gene through inactivation by gene targeting in embryonic stem cells can be used as a model for atherosclerosis. apoE is a constituent of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) synthesized by the liver and of a subclass of high density lipoproteins (HDLs) involved in cholesterol transport among cells. In humans a variant form of apoE, has been found to be defective in binding to the LDL receptor that is associated with familial type III hyperlipoproteinemia, a disease characterized by elevated plasma cholesterol and premature coronary heart disease. apoE deficient mice develop severe hypercholesterolemia due to a delayed clearance of large atherogenic particles from the circulation. A study was done to analyze the genesis of atherosclerotic lesions, including the nature of the cells involved, the sequence of cellular events and the anatomic location of specific lesion types over time on mice fed a normal or a high fat diet. They found that the lesions were distributed thought the arterial tree and contained many features of the specialized, chronic, inflammatory-fibroproliferative response characteristic of atherosclerosis with age. This mouse model is used to better understand the physiological role of apoE in lipid metabolism, atherogenesis, and nerve injury. The model can also be used as a way to test new pharmacological drugs in pre-clinical trials to determine drug interaction, new therapeutics or to develop variations of current drugs to better meet the needs of the vast array of genetic variability seen in the human population today. Gene ablation involves the homologous genetic recombination of a gene in such a way that the gene has been made â€Å"null†. Genetic ablation is a genetic engineering technique used to suppress selectively the growth of a specified cell line or cell type in an animal rather than suppress the activity of an individual gene2. Analyzing the in vivo function of cells can be accomplished through specific cell ablation. Using genetic ablation to produce a knockout mouse involves the injection of one or more transgenes (usually a DNA segment bearing its own promoter) into the pronucleus of a fertilized mouse oocyte, which, after reimplantation into a foster mother, gives birth to a transgenic mouse bearing one of several hundred copies of the transgene3. These mice again can be bred to produce a homozygous colony. An overexpression Sod2 transgenic mouse was generated through the use of pronuclear injection of the Sod2 gene into fertilized eggs. These mice overexpressed superoxide dismutase which catalyzes the conversion of superoxide anion to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen. Superoxide anions are reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in the respiratory chain as a byproduct of mitochondrial respiration. ROS cause oxidative damage to key mitochondrial components, such as protein, lipids and DNA. They are thought to lead to an overall decline in cellular function and ultimately determine the life span of an organism. Sod2 trangsenic mice have been used to test the effects of overexpressing MnSOD on mitochondrial function, levels of oxidative stress or damage and live span in mice. They found that a two fold increase of MnSOD throughout the life of the organism resulted in a slight decrease in oxidative damage and enhanced resistance against oxidative stress. Oxidative damage is also associated wit h arthritis, heart disease, gastrointestinal disorders, multiple sclerosis, cancer and neurological diseases. This model can be used to physiologically improve ones understanding of oxidative stress and to develop pharmaceutical agents that can enhance ones ability to decrease or protect against oxidative damage. Customized gene targeted animal models include constitutive knockouts or knock-ins, or conditional knockouts or knock-ins of known genes, a gene family, mutant genes or artificially created reporters and gene constructs. A constitutive knockout is a model that provides a broad overview of gene function, by the inactivation of the gene of interest at the genetic level, by random mutation or targeted insertion4. The advantage of using this model is that you get a total inactivation of the gene in any cell4. The disadvantage of this model is that the phenotypes can be complex since all organs are affected4. A conditional knockout is a model that provides a research model of high potential, by targeting tissue-specific inactivation of the gene of interest, through the use of recombinase4. Recombinase is an enzyme that deletes the DNA fragment located between the two recombinase-specific sites4. This tissue-specific expression of the recombinase allows the inactivation of the gene of inte rest only in the tissue were the recombinase is expressed4. There are two advantages to using this model, the first is the inactivation is restricted to specific tissues and the second is that several tissue-specific models can be made in parallel4. The disadvantages of using this model include the efficiency of the excision and the inability to validate the recombinase system4. There are a number of other strategies that can be used in place of, or to complement, conventional gene knockout technology. Two such examples are regulatable gene ablation and temporary gene ablation (gene knock downs). Ablation of a gene can be spatially or temporally regulated, that is only the organ of interest is affected or the mutation occurs only in one particular developmental state5. Through the use of a regulator, the promoter can be regulated to control gene expression in the organ or particular tissue of interest. A gene knockdown refers to the technique by which the expression of one or more of an organisms genes is reduced, either through genetic modification or by treatment with a reagent such as a short DNA or RNA oligonucleotide with a sequence complementary to either an mRNA transcript or a gene6. These approaches offer a rapid and economical method to examine the specific actions of a gene product at a particular time point. Genes can be transiently down-regulate d by targeted blockade of gene expression, either systemically or within a specific tissue. Two such approaches are antisense technology and the use of short interfering RNA (siRNA). Antisense technology is the use of short modified DNA sequences complementary to the mRNA of the gene of interest2. These sequences bind to the 5UTR and the beginning of the coding sequence therefore preventing translation initiation and blocking ribosomal interaction with the AUG start codon2. Antisense oligonucleotide genetic-code blocking drugs might control disease by inhibiting deleterious or malfunctioning genes. siRNA on the other hand, utilizes small lengths of double stranded RNA designed against the gene of interest and is introduced into the cell where they interact with intracellular machinery to form RNA-induced silencing complexes (RISCs)2. These complexes unwind the siRNA strands and allow specific binding to the complementary mRNA sequence2. This binding causes cleavage and destruction o f the now double stranded mRNA, and subsequently prevents translation2. siRNA can be used to study gene function, manipulating gene expression, as well as drug development. siRNA compounds can be created and delivered into human cells were they are able to silence genes and viruses responsible for human diseases. Two other genetic techniques that are used to approach gene investigation include suppressor analysis and reverse genetics. Suppressor analysis is used to identify genes that are functionally related to another gene of interest7. A suppressor mutation is a mutation that counteracts the effects of another mutation thereby reducing its phenotypic effect7. Suppressor mutations may be intragenic (in the same gene as the original mutation) or intergenic (in another gene)7. Intergenic suppressor mutations can be either information suppressors or function suppressors7. Of the two, function suppressors are most valuable for the genetic analysis of cellular processes7. Reverse genetics is a process in which specific mutations are introduced into a cloned gene for the purpose of identifying functional domains8. One way to conduct reverse genetics is to do RNA interference (RNAi)8. RNA interference is an in vivo gene knock-down, which is used to insert a random shRNA construct into the mouse ge nome4. Here, double-stranded RNAs inhibit corresponding gene expression by inducing degradation of its mRNA4. RNAi can be used as part of the immune response to viruses and other genetic material; it can also be used to look at downregulation and upregulation of genes4. RNAi has been used to evaluate whether insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP3) modulates gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) cell response. Here, transfection of siRNA to knockdown IGFBP3 gene into GIST cells resulted in a significant loss of cell viability and therefore found that IGFP3 gene is required for GIST cell survival. IGFBP3 gene expression is lost in many cancer cells and reintroduction of the protein often results in cell death. On the other hand IGFBP3 has been linked to renal cell carcinoma, breast cancer, and metastatic melanoma, which suggests that IGFBP3 may contribute to tumorigenesis or disease progression. By studying IGFBP3 and the IGF pathway one can explore IGF for prognostic an d therapeutic value in GISTs and other cancers. In order to develop new treatment and preventative strategies for a human disease, we must first understand the biology and pathogenesis of the human disease itself10. A way to study human gene function is by mouse gene humanization. Humanization is the replacement of the murine gene by its human counter part4. Animal models of human disease have been crucial in elucidating normal organ biology, pathogenic mechanisms of the disease and developing new therapeutic strategies10. Animal models are being used instead of human studies, because human studies are limited by a number of factors such as: the variability seen in genetic background and environmental influences, the inability to readily obtain human tissues for molecular analysis and the small numbers of patients who may have a particular genetic abnormality10. Transgenic animals have already made valuable research contributions to studies involving regulation of gene expression, the function of the immune system, genetic diseases, viral diseases, cardiovascular disease, and the genes responsible for the development of cancer. Transgenic animal models are most effective if they have both construct validity and face validity. Construct validity is the degree to which the model corresponds to the clinical state in humans. Face validity is the animal model responds in an appropriate manner to the effects of different therapeutic agents. An animal model that can recapitulate at least part of the neuropathology and the cognitive and behavioral impairment is the most effective representative of the disease. Several rodent models of Alzheimers disease (AD) have been created. The first example of such a model has been created to mimic the cholinergic deficits of AD patients and to investigate the role of the central cholinergic system in the cognit ive and behavioral deficits observed in AD9. The second example of such a model has been created with acute or chronic injections of amyloid beta within the brain parenchyma of rodents, to overexpress AD-related mutated protein (amyloid deposits) in the central nervous system of rodents9. A third model of AD has been to create a transgenic mouse to express wild-type or mutant forms of the human APP and/or PS genes. All three of these models provide many insights into AD pathogenesis and approached to new therapies. By exploring and understanding of the neuropathological processes underlying the cognitive deterioration leading to dementia and investigating of the effects of potential new treatments on both AD neuropathology and cognitive deficits we will be able to test drugs that could potentially alleviate symptoms of the disease. Transgenic animals have also been used to develop animal strains that secrete important proteins in milk2. These animals are used to synthesize recoverable quantities of therapeutically useful proteins. These proteins can be harvested from the animal by simply milking the animal and then using separation techniques for protein purification2. For example cows have been used to purify collagen which can then be used to indicate burns and bone fracture2. Pigs have been used to purify human hemoglobin as a blood replacement for transfusion2. Goats have been used to make monoclonal antibodies for colon cancer2. In addition sheep have been used to make factor VIII and factor IX for hemophilia2. Despite the large amount of knowledge that can be gained by knockout studies, there are some important considerations to be taken when investigating the role of a particular protein or gene of interest. These considerations include but are not limited to: redundancy, lethality, delineating systemic vs. local effects, subtle effects, and specific pathogen free conditions3. Gene redundancy is the existence of multiple copies of the same gene in the genome of an organism. This problem can be overcome to some extent by the use of multiple knockouts or in some situations where multiple ligands bind to the same receptor, a dominant negative receptor approach can knockout the effects of all ligands at once5. Lethality phenotypes severely compromise the ability of the organism to function. Some knockouts are developmentally lethal, which means that the genetically altered embryos cannot grow in adult mice. Knocking out a gene may also fail to produce an observable (phenotypic) change in a mo use or may even produce different characteristics from those observed in humans in which the same gene is inactivated. In some instances, a particular organ of interest can be transplanted into a healthy wild type host in order to conduct the analysis on that organ. Local effect refers to an adverse health effect that takes place at the point or area of contact, for example the respiratory tract11. Systemic effect refers to an adverse health effect that takes place at a location distant from the bodys initial point of contact and assumes absorption has taken place, i.e. absorption into the blood stream11. Subtle effects are those that are so slight as to be difficult to detect or describe. For example, small changes in nutrient delivery to the fetus can program post-natal and adult metabolic status and lead to increased susceptibility to a range of adult onset disease, including stroke, hypertension and non-insulin dependent diabetes5. Specific pathogen free conditions refers to the fact that laboratory mice in research institution are generally housed in a specific pathogen free environment, and are therefore not challenged with the array of pathogens most mice and humans are exposed to. When comparing transgenic models to humans a key difference could be in the initiation of the development or process in the mouse that may not have a similar mechanism as the human development or process it is thought to represent. The presence of a specific mutation in the mouse from the time of its conception may enable a distinction between phenotypic changes due to the mutation itself and changes caused by adaptation and compensation for the mutation12. A gene can also be expressed in different tissues where it may have different functions; its alteration may induce unexpected consequences. Also, the function of two genes may overlap or a mutation in a single gene might not reveal an abnormal phenotype. There is also a possibility of random incorporation into genome, which may inadvertently disrupt other genes, or have a variable degree of gene silencing success. The gene may also induce gross morphologic or physiologic abnormalities that affect the gene directly. Note also, thes e animal models also only play a minor role in drug development, as relatively few human diseases are monogenetic12. In most cases, gene ablation and other genetic techniques must address the basic question as to whether a particular gene, wild type, or mutant is involved in the pathogenesis of a particular disease. If not a particular disease, it may also address whether a gene product which plays a role in a specific signaling process contributes to disease in conjunction with other predisposing conditions. Animal models are crucial in providing a unified understanding of how drugs work, developing new therapeutic agents, and obtaining critical data needed to advance compounds into clinical trails12. Animal models are an important tool for scientist to investigate human diseases, especially in order to conduct time-course studies or when studying early disease. Transgenic and knockout animals are also used to determine the molecular mode of action of a gene product and the downstream consequences of its misexpression on normal processes. Assessing the role of a specific gene can know be accomplis hed through the use of transgenic animals whose genomes have been manipulated to under- or overexpress a target gene, or express it in a modified or defective, nonfunctional form12. Animal models represent an attempt to imitate the pathologies associated with human disease states in a preclinical setting12. References: Molecular Biology of the Cell. Alberts, et. al. 4th edition 2002 Garland Science New York, NY. Crommelin, D.J.A. and Sindelar, R.D. (1997). Pharmaceutical Biotechnology: Fundamentals and Applications, Third Ed. Taylor and Francis. Philadelphia, PA. Seidman, J.G. (2009) Manipulating the Mouse Genome. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. January 01. Reliable and Innovative Solutions for Transgenesis. Accessed on 11/4/2009. Ingman, WV. And Jones, RL. (2008). Cytokine knockouts in reporduciton: the use of gene ablation to dissect roles of cytokines in reproductive biology. Human Reproductive Update 14(2): 179-192. Gene knockdown. (2009, June 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:53, November 8, 2009, from Fay, D. and Johnson, W. (2006). Genetic mapping and manipulation: Chapter 10-Suppressor mutations. Accessed on 11/5/2009. Bio-Medicine. Accessed on 11/4/2009. Dodart, J.C. and May P. (2005) Overview on Rodent models of Alzheimers Disease. Current Protocols in Neuroscience. November 01. Lind J. and Semsarian C. (2006) Overview of Model Systems for the Analysis of Human Disease. Current Protocols in Human Genetics. February 01. Local vs. Systemic Health Effects. Accessed on 11/3/2009. Moser, P. (2009) Animal Models of Disease. Current Protocols in Pharmacology. September 01. Katz, D.A. (2007) Overview of Pharmacogenetics. Current Protocols in Pharmacology. March 01. Barash, CI. (2001)Ethical Issues in Pharmacogenetics. Accessed on 11/4/2009. Frequently Asked Questions about Pharmacogenetics. Accessed on 11/4/2009. Bustle, O., Jones, K.N., Learish R. D., et.al.(1999) Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Glial Precursors: A source of Myelinating Transplants. Science 5428(285): 754-756 Piedrahita, J.A., Zhang, S.H, Hagaman, J.R, Oliver, P.M, and Maeda N. (1992) Generation of mice carrying a mutant apolipoprotein E gene inactivated by gene targeting in embryonic stem cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:4471-4475. Nakashima, Y, Plump AS, Raines E.W, Reslow J.L, and Ross R. (1994) ApoE-deficient mice develop lesions of all phases of atherosclerosis throughout the arterial tree. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 14:133-140. Jang Y.C et.al (2009). Overexpression of Mn Superoxide Dismutase Does Not Increase Life Span in Mice. Journal of Gerontology:Biological Sciences. 64(11): 1114-1125. Dupart JJ. Et.al (2009). Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 has dual effects on gastrointestinal stromal tumor cell viability and sensitivity to the anti-tumor effects of imatinib mesylate in vitro. Mol Cancer Nov 10;8(1):99 (Epub ahead of print) PMID: 19903356 Genes associate with drug responses can be grouped into three broad categories: those involved in pharmacokinetics (i.e. drug metabolism, transport), those encoding pharmacological targets (i.e. drug-target pathways) and those with physiological associations (i.e. homeostasis pathways)13. Pharmacokinetic pathways mediate drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion13. Pharmacological pathways such as transcription factors and phosphorylation targets whose genes encode other proteins are also candidates for pharmacogenetic analysis13. Understanding the sensitivity of a particular drug and the genes that encode the drug metabolizing enzymes can help determine how the particular drug is transported and metabolized within the body. Understanding the gene variants and how they influence drug concentrations at the target site is a possible way to explain the differences in response to a particular drug dose among individuals. Pharmacogenetics is the study of how an individuals genetic differences influence drug action, usage and dosing2. The molecular compositions of enzymes are currently being identified through the use of the Human Genome Project. Scientists are able to study these enzymes and determine correlations between genotypic and phenotypic variability14. These current advances will allow scientists to use the molecular knowledge of enzymes to detect individuals who are likely to experience adverse reactions to medicines without having to use potentially dangerous methods of trial and error14. An offshoot of pharmacogenetics is pharmacogenomics, which attempts to understand not only the molecular composition of genetic variants associated with drug response but also the behavior of those variants14. Pharmacogenomic knowledge can be used to spot the disease before it occurs in a patient, increase drug efficacy upon pharmacotherapy, and reduce drug toxicity2. It could also facilitate the drug development process to improve clinical development outcomes, reducing overall cost of drug development and lead to development of new diagnostic tests that impact on therapeutic decisions2. Pharmacogenomics can be used by doctors to identify the optimal dose and medicine for each individual patient with greater efficacy and safety. As the dosage would be based on factors such as age, weight, diet, lifestyle, liver and kidney function. By using a pharmacogenetic test a doctor can determine the right dose for individual patients. There are phomacogenetic tests for cancer, HIV, depressio n, and cardiovascular disease15. These tests take in the factors which are most likely to affect the absorption and effectiveness of the drug. There are many benefits that can come from pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics. Pharmaceutical companies can use information obtained to create more powerful medicines based on proteins, enzymes, and RNA molecules associated with genes and diseases15. Again, doctors would be able to analyze a patients genetic profile and prescribe the best available drug therapy from the beginning instead of the standard trial and error method of matching patient with the right drugs. A more appropriate drug dosage could be determined by not only taking in a persons weight and age but also accounting for their individual body processes, such as the time it takes for their body to metabolize the drug. Pharmacogenetics could also provide advance screening for disease, better vaccines, improvements in the drug discovery and approval process and decrease the overall cost of health care15. Pharmacogenomics is still in the development stage in the research field. There are several factors that need to be overcome before many of the pharmacogenomic benefits can be realized. These include the complexity of finding gene variations that affect drug response, the limitation of current drug alternatives, disincentives for drug companies to make multiple pharmacogenomic products, and educating health care providers14. There are also ethical issues to consider, such as lack of data privacy, possibility that adverse reactions to drugs can occur during treatment, the cost of such designer drugs will be to expensive for everyone, and genetic testing can provide an array of diagnostic results (predisposal test) which may or may not be what the patient wants to know14.

High Blood Pressure Essay -- Health, Cardiovascular Disease

Data from World health organization (2002), estimated that high blood pressure was the cause of death for more than 7 million individuals every year, affecting 972 million of world population which accounts for 26.4% in total, 26.6% of those are men and 26.1% are women. In addition 333 million of those in developed countries and 639 million in developing countries and responsible for 11% of all diseases burden in industrial countries, it also estimated to be the case of death for more than 20% in men and almost 24% in women. (WHO, 2003), (Kearney et al, 2005) In the future, high blood pressure is predicted to increase about 60% by 2025 to reach a total of 1.56 billion. This increase expected to contribute of 9% and 13% in both men and women respectively. (Kearney et al, 2005) Globally, the highest prevalence rate of high blood pressure found in women in former socialist economies region while for men was in Latin American and Caribbean region and the lowest prevalence was in â€Å"other Asian and islands† region for both men and women. (Kearney et al, 2005) High blood pressure considered one of the main risk factor of cardiovascular diseases, which contributes with 62% of cardiovascular diseases globally. It also contributes to 54% of stroke cases and 47% ischemic heart disease. (Lawest et al, 2008) Moreover it is responsible for 50% of heart failure burden in the world. (Lloyd et al, 2002) The INTERHEART study estimated that having a hypertension was the reason for 25% of heart attack cases in both central and Eastern Europe while it represents the same reason for 22 % of Western Europe. Individuals who have an elevated blood pressure are suspect to have heart attack twice more than normotensive. ( Yusuf et al, 2004) or Brit... ...to affect individuals in controlling their high blood pressure and it is also a serious risk factor of cardiovascular disease. For that, this study aims to develop a treatment model which helps high blood pressure individuals in Saudi Arabia to decrease and control their high blood pressure in easy way, less costing, fit the Saudi culture, life style, and overcome the weather obstacle. Taking into counter the evidence on exercise in reducing the blood pressure, and walking in particular. The question arise, does promote walking among Saudi individuals could be the solution to overcome the co-morbidity factors and become a step stone in managing the high blood pressure. Not to forget to mention that walking suits any member of the society regardless the age, gender, social and traditions attributes, and does not cost more than comfortable athletic shoes.

Can the Source of Aggression be Found in the Brain? :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Can the Source of Aggression be Found in the Brain? In Holland, male members of a certain family were found to be prone to violent outbursts; one male, criticized by his employer, attempted to run him over with a car - another raped his sister and was sent to a mental hospital - a third coerced his sister into undressing by threatening her with a knife. Such men display retarded motor development, difficulties in task planning, and awkward sexual behavior. (1). Recently, researchers claimed to have found the basis of such aggressive behavior to genetic sources - specifically, a deficiency in the MAOA gene of these males (2). In Finland, studies were conducted on males who also displayed uncontrollable behavior, and the findings demonstrated that the men possessed a neurotransmitter substance deficiency, particularly in the messenger serotonin (3). This lack of serotonin has been linked to aggressive behavior: some violent prone individuals did not effectively break down these substances All around the globe, people have attempted to find an organic, genetic basis for aggressive behavior. Several hormones and neurotransmitters, such as testosterone and seretonin, have been implicated in the "aggression quest", as well as specific localities of the human brain. My paper will serve to suggest that although many findings have shown impressive results regarding possible biological causes of violent behavior, we still do not have sufficient means to understand the neuroanatomical or biochemical basis of aggression. Neurotransmitters have been suggested as a significant cause of aggressive behavior. Hans Brunner, a geneticist at the University Hospital in Nijmegen, has found that the violent male members of the Dutch family mentioned earlier in this paper, lacked a gene that produces monoamine oxidase-a (MAOA) (4). MAOA is an enzyme that breaks down significant transmitters in the brain. If the MAOA does not break down these transmitters - specifically, serotonin - then buildup of serotonin will occur and could cause a person to act violently (3). However, it is interesting how contradictory the finding is to several other claims. Studies have shown that serotonin, in normal levels, exerts a calming, inhibitory effect on neuronal firing (5) and that, in low levels of serotonin, aggressive and impulse behaviors increase (6).This contradicts the previous claim that a built-up, or high levels of serotonin caused by the MAOA mutation, causes violent behavior. Furthermore, the claim regarding the specificity of serotonin to aggression can be analogous to a small fish in a big pond.

Humans Cause Climate Change Essay examples -- Global Warming Essays, 20

"Two thousand scientists, in a hundred countries, engaged in the most elaborate, well organized scientific collaboration in the history of humankind, have produced long-since a consensus that we will face a string of terrible catastrophes unless we act to prepare ourselves and deal with the underlying causes of global warming." -- Al Gore Many misinformed people believe that extreme climate change is a natural process; something that human activities have nothing to do with. They cite events such as the Ice Age and believe that these events are part of a natural Earth cycling. Therefore, they happen despite anything that humans do. A common misunderstanding of the climate system characterizes it like a pendulum. The planet will warm up to "cancel out" a previous period of cooling, spurred by some internal equilibrium. This view of the climate is incorrect (Climatesight 1). As the Skeptical Science cited, this perspective implies that the Earth's climate must revolve around an equilibrium. These people believe that because there was an Ice Age, there must be an equal and opposi...

Why Is Reality T.V. so Popular?

Why Is Reality T. V. So Popular? It would be difficult to find an hour of the day when a reality television show isn’t on. What exactly is the appeal of reality television that has so many viewers completely hooked? Why has the popularity of reality TV spanned all socio-economic statuses, age groups, and education levels? Perhaps it’s the unscripted glimpse you get into other people’s lives that helps take the focus off present troubles, or makes everyone’s day to day lives seem a little less â€Å"crazy. Whatever it is that draws reality TV fans in, this fairly new phenomenon has certainly taken the entertainment industry by storm. Let’s take a look at some possible reasons the popularity of reality TV continues to grow. Voyeurism . It's the reason traffic backs up when there's a horrific car crash – we just want to look. Reality stars have the lack of embarrassment we often wish we had, but more often than not, are glad we don't. Admit it. In your head you've smacked a thousand snotty girls or meat headed guys across the face.We all dream of having an excuse to get into a fist fight, just to show what we've got. Well reality stars have found their excuse – the camera – and we'll keep watching as long as they've got punches to throw I don't think I'm taking a huge leap here by saying that reality TV stars aren't the sharpest tools in the shed. Let's remember that these are people who are knowingly exploiting their personal lives for a little cash and fifteen minutes of fame. Reality stars can, however, be depended upon for one thing.When a delicate situation arises, that requires proper judgment, clear thinking, and caution, reality stars will without failure, make the wrong choice. This is great for us because we can learn from them. We can learn what not to do in almost any situation, and their flagrant disregard for logic, can be our guiding light. Our daily lives require a lot of mental energy. Our j obs our stressful and challenging, and often our personal lives are even worse. Our minds are constantly being taxed and drained.Who wants to come home and escape by turning on entertainment with substance? I don't know about you, but after a long day of thinking, I can't handle substance. I want fluff – pure, unadulterated fluff. The less I have to think to understand what I'm watching the better, and luckily, reality TV requires no thought at all. The popularity of reality TV shouldn't come as a surprise considering the fact that we live in a culture that worships vanity, rather than virtue, and lives by the mantra of ‘He with the most toys lives,' rather than ‘He with the most joys lives. It's been said that circumstances don't make a man, they only reveal him. Likewise, reality TV is merely a reflection of what our society has become – a materialistically driven society where the love of power and money overcomes the power of love. It's a reflection of a society that is not only devoid of a solid wholesome value system, but is also separated from spiritual roots. It's also a culture that thrives on living on the edge, characterized by thrill-seeking and addictions.

Marketing the X-Box

Introduction The main aim of this project is to help me understand the marketing process, which is required to launch a new successful product. The new product I will be marketing is the Microsoft X Box. Millions of new products are launched every year worldwide. Most are unsuccessful and are taken off the market after a while. Without marketing a new product is very likely to fail. Microsoft needs to market their products because there is so much choice in the market. Marketing will give Microsoft a better understanding of the market and customers needs and wants. I will be acting as the marketing director within this company. Marketing is basically the management process, which is responsible for identifying potentially profitable products and them selling them to customers. Microsoft is a multi-national successful company with substantial profits and is aiming at a mass market with the X Box rather than a niche market. Microsoft will want to sell to as many places as possible. A marketing plan would help improve the company's performance and increase sales. There's a lot more to marketing than just advertising, marketing involves†¦ > Researching the market and finding out what customers want. > Developing and designing a product that satisfies customers and consumers. > Producing the right amount and to the right quality of the product. > Making sure that the customer is aware of the product and what its about. > Getting the price right so that the product is affordable to customers, but also allows the business to be profitable. > Ensuring that the product is on sale in places convenient to the customers. This can be summed up using a term called the marketing mix or the 4P's, place, product, price and promotion. Place A product is unlikely to be successful if customers find it difficult to purchase. So place is a vital part of the marketing mix. Microsoft needs to consider how to get their products to the customer. Channels of distribution need to be efficient and effective. For a product to sell it must be in the right place at the right time for customers to buy. Microsoft needs to find out where it's convenient for customers to buy the X Box. The X Box is likely to sell more in Electronics Boutique rather than New Look because people go into New Look to buy clothes not games consoles, but people do go into Electronics Boutique to buy computer games or games consoles. I will need to look at: > Where to sell the X Box and why? > Channels of distribution. > Selling to places that wont tarnish the company's good reputation. > Where it's convenient to sell to customers. > Selling to as many places as possible (mass market). > Disadvantages and advantages of selling the X Box in certain places. Product Microsoft have to decide what product or range of products they are going to sell. They also have to decide what quality of product they wish to make and sell, what name to give the product and how it is to be packaged. Another decision is whether to attempt to brand the product. I will have to look at: > The product life cycle and how it could affect the X Box. > Why is the product is called the X Box. > Product range. > Does the product satisfy the needs and wants of the customers? > Research and development of the X Box. > Is Microsoft product orientated or market orientated? > Importance of quality. > Product differentiation. > Disadvantages and advantage of the X Box. Promotion Microsoft needs to decide how best to promote the products they make and sell. The decision involves weighing up the relative cost of each form or promotion and how best to target their customers. They also need to consider the use of advertising agencies. Promotion is all about communicating with potential customers, if the public isn't aware of the X Box then they are not likely to go out and buy it. Microsoft will also have to be careful not to offend potential customers with advertising that discriminates against certain people, e.g. race or gender. When looking at the promotion part of the marketing mix I will have to consider: > Different types of advertising, where to use them, why, the cost and will they be effective. > Different types of promotions, where to use them, why, the cost and will they be effective. > Stages of the product life cycle and how the affect the promotion of the X Box. > Disadvantage and advantage to promotion. Price Price is another element of the marketing mix. Microsoft must decide how to price its product. In making this decision Microsoft has to consider, what are the prices set by competitors, how price can be used to increase sales of the product, whether the price will cover costs of production, whether customers are willing to pay that set price and different pricing strategies such as skimming or penetration pricing. When looking at the price section of the marketing mix I will have to consider a number of things: > Prices set by competitors. > How price can increase or decrease sales. > Does that price cover cost of production? > Are the customers willing to pay that price? > Different pricing strategies such as skimming and penetration. > Disadvantages and advantages to setting that price. If the marketing mix is wrong, for example, the price of the X Box is too high and it is not selling in places convenient to customers, the X Box wont be as successful as it could be. The marketing mix is a vital part of ensuring a new products success, without it the product will fail. Market research is a major part of this project. It can help me to find out the customers needs and wants, which will enable me to create the right marketing mix. The product needs to be affordable, make a profit and to be promoted and sold in the right places. It is also very important that the X Box is aimed at the right segment of the market. The market can be split into different categories: Age Age can be separated into years or stages of life e.g. child, teenager, adult or pensioner. Microsoft mainly targets adults with their existing products. With the X Box Microsoft is likely to target younger people such as teenagers because they are more likely to buy the X Box rather than a pensioner. Gender Different products can be aimed at different genders e.g. make up is aimed at women and beer is aimed at men. Some people could say this is sexist but men are more likely to buy beer than make up. Businesses have to be very careful when advertising to certain genders as not to offend people. Microsoft are likely to aim the X Box more to males rather than females because boy tend to buy games consoles and computer games more than girls. Income/Occupation The population can be segmented according to their salary or occupation. Microsoft mainly targets people with above average income because their products can be slightly expensive, but they have to be careful not to advertise this because people could get offended. Microsoft also has to make sure their product is affordable to as many people as possible but not lower the price too much in case they lose profits. Area The area in which people live can divide the population. People in the northeast of England may have a different lifestyle to people the south of England, therefore their needs and wants will differ. Microsoft will need to promote the X Box in different ways according to location as to satisfy a mass market. Ethnic, cultural and religious groups Businesses need to be careful with the production and promotion of its products when it comes to different religions. If a business decides to produce its products in Asia because of cheap labour, people from Asia could refrain from buying that business' product because they are offended. Equally businesses have to be careful when advertising its products as not to offend people of certain ethnic, cultural or religious groups. Socio – economic groupings One of the most important ways of separating the population is the use of socio-economic groupings. Socio-economic groupings work like this: Social Grade Social Status Head of household's Occupation % of total UK population A Upper Middle Class Higher managerial, administrative or professional such as doctors, lawyers and company directors. 3.5% B Middle Intermediate managerial, administrative or professional such as teachers, nurses and managerial. 12-13% C1 Lower Middle Class Supervisory or clerical and junior managerial administrative or professional such as shop assistants, clerks and police constables. 22% C2 Skilled Working Class Skilled manual workers such as carpenters, cooks and train drivers. 32-33% D Working Class Semi – skilled and unskilled manual workers such as fitters and storekeepers. 19-20% E The Poorest In Society State pensioners or widows, casual or lower grade workers, or long-term unemployed. 10% The Product Life Cycle The Development Stage Products start life in the development stage. This is where the product is designed and also where the majority of the marketing is done. There are no profits at this stage, only costs. Microsoft will have to make up for the money lost in the growth stage of the product life cycle. The Introduction Stage This is the stage where the product is launched. Profits and sales are minimal in this stage, but it doesn't last too long if good advertising is used to make the customers aware of the product. The Growth Stage Sales and profits are increasing rapidly in this stage. Microsoft will have to consider what pricing strategies and promotions to use to keep the X Box in this stage as long as possible. Maturity In the maturity stage, the product reaches a peak in terms of sales. Research and development costs are likely to be paid off. The product could be profitable enough to be financing the development of new products. Saturation Towards the end of the maturity stage the market becomes saturated. Competitors bring out products to try and take sales away. It is likely that Microsoft will not be able to sell any more of the X Box at this point. Decline Eventually a product is likely to go into decline, sales will drop dramatically. Microsoft could try extension strategies at this stage to try and increase sales slightly or they could just withdraw the product from the market. The product life cycle can affect a lot of the marketing mix, for example, which promotions and pricing strategies to use at certain stages in the product life cycle. A Business would like to be in a sellers' market where customers have little choice but to buy from them. In a buyers' market though, business have to be market orientated and the greater is the need for effective marketing. I think Microsoft is in the buyers' market. Although they are a major company with substantial profits, Microsoft still have competition such as smaller software companies. The product ‘X Box' is a slightly different product from what Microsoft usually sells. Microsoft specialises in software and hardware for PC's, the ‘X Box' is a games consol, and so the main competition will be Sony and their Playstation. Although the Playstation is a very successful product it may be entering decline in the product life cycle because the Playstation has been around for a while. When the Sony Playstation started to enter the maturity stage Sony launched a new product the Playstation 2, this would be the ‘X box' main competition. I think Microsoft could afford a very large budget because the company's profits are very large, the fact that they have spent a lot of money developing the product could affect the budget for marketing the product. I estimate that the budget would be somewhere around à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½20 million. I'm going to cover various areas of marketing, which will include†¦ * Analysing the market, finding out what customers want, where best to sell it and find out about the competition and target market. * Market Research, desk research and field research. * The Product, product differentiation, ways of differentiating the product, branding and retailing. * The Product Life Cycle, look at what similar products have gone through in the five main stages. Development, introduction, growth, maturity and saturation, and decline. * Pricing, competition, costs of making, affordability and pricing strategies. * Demand and Supply, what people want, how much they want and what they are willing to pay. * Promotion, advertising packaging, direct mail etc†¦ * Place, channels of distribution. * Retailing, how retailing within the company would affect marketing. * Constraints on Marketing, the law, ethics and the market and pressure groups. They are many disadvantages and advantages of marketing. Disadvantages include things such as, cost and constraints on marketing. Constraints on marketing are ethical considerations, the law (Trade Descriptions Act 1968), codes of practice (Advertising Standards Authority) and pressure groups. Ethical considerations include things such as labour, many multinational companies have been criticised for using workers in the Far East because they are relatively cheap, and the business want to take advantage of the lower costs of production. Nike was once criticised by the press because of the high prices they charge for their goods and the low wages paid to workers and low costs of production. Microsoft will have to ensure that they don't put too much of a profit mark up on the X Box, and also make ensure their workers are treated fairly. Other ethical considerations are the use of promotions and advertising such as the use of images in adverts. Many companies have been attacked by pressure groups because of the content of the adverts they use, such as images of beautiful woman that lure men into buying the product and information included in the adverts. For instance should a washing powder manufacturer claim in an advert that its washing powder ‘washes whiter' than other powders on the market when there is no scientific proof that it does? Should tobacco companies promote their products when they damage peoples health? If people are really shocked by an advert they may consider not buy the products produced by that company, therefore Microsoft will have to be careful when choosing methods of promotion. The law ensures that advertising does not fool the public. The Trade Descriptions Act 1968 states that is illegal for products to be incorrectly described for example Microsoft couldn't advertise the X Box as if it comes with a free TV if it doesn't. The government has encouraged businesses to adopt a code of practice as an alternative to passing laws. Codes of practice are rules, which businesses voluntarily agree to keep, but have no legal status. Advantages of marketing include†¦ Helping the business to get a better understanding of the market, marketing also lets the business to know what price, to set where to sell the product what promotions to use and what the potential customers want from the product. Market research will also tell the company whether there is a demand for the product in question. Marketing will change across different countries because different countries have a different way of life. For instance people in America can afford to pay a lot more for the X Box than people in the poorer parts of Africa and Asia. Market Research Microsoft needs information if they are to make good decisions. They need information about their target market to help them create a successful marketing mix. One way of gaining that information is by carrying out market research. Market research is a cost-effective way of finding out what people believe, think, want, need or do. There are various types of market research. Microsoft needs to decide what market research methods are most likely to give them the information they need. Businesses, which are mainly product, orientated risk spending a large amount of resources launching a product, which proves to be a failure. Researching the market helps reduce the risk. Microsoft should focus research and design effort onto products, which have a chance of success in the market place. When the product is launched a carefully researched product stands less chance of failing. Stages of Market Research Market research will help Microsoft to find answers to questions about the market. * What is the target market for the X Box? * How can Microsoft use the X Box to increase market share? * What is the right price to set that will maximise profits and be affordable to as many people as possible? * What are the right promotions to use that will appeal to Microsoft's target market? * Where's the best place to sell the X Box? * What do customers want and need? * What is the demand for the X Box? * What are existing patterns of sales for other games consoles? I then need to decide what information might help answer the questions, then I need to decide how best to collect this information. The information is then collected and analysed. Finally Microsoft has to make a decision about what to do in the light of the information gained. Desk Research Desk research involves the use of secondary data. This is information that is already available both within and outside the business. Information within the business Microsoft collects information routinely. Invoices for instance will tell them how much they sell and who they are selling to. Information outside the business Businesses can also collect information, which is available from sources outside the business such as: * Internal sources – such as sales invoices, reports and accounts. * Government – published statistics such as consumer spending figures, reports such as monopolies and mergers commission reports. * The Media – reports in newspapers, magazines on radio and on TV. * Trade associations – statistics or reports published by national organisations such as the TUC, the CBI or chambers of commerce or industry associations such as the Engineering Employers Federation. * Research organisations – reports prepared by specialist market research organisations such as Mintel or Mori; articles published in academic journals such as university journals. Field Research Field research involves the collection of primary data, information that no one has yet collected. It is collected specially for the particular piece of research. Primary data is collected through direct investigation, usually through observation, survey or experiment. To help me create my marketing mix I used both secondary and primary research. I collected primary data in the form of a questionnaire that I asked 50 people. I used secondary data from the Internet. I used the Internet to find out about Video Game sales and I found a report by PC Data about home Internet users planing to purchase console or PC games during the 2000 holiday season, and that PC and console gaming is no longer a male-dominated domain. This was very useful research and it helped me a lot when putting together my marketing plan. I didn't find any information from the media or the government because of lack of time. Quantitative and Qualitative Research There are two main types of survey data – quantitative, and qualitative. Quantitative Quantitative research provides numerical data. At the completion of a quantitative project it is possible to say (for example) what proportion or percentage of the population fall into different groups – those that want something, those that would be likely to buy something, those that are in favour of a particular policy or plan, etc. The essence of quantitative research is that every respondent is asked the same series of questions. Quantitative research can be done in various ways: By face-to-face interviewing, either in the street or, for more complex projects, in people's homes. This was the traditional approach to data collection, and remains important. In-home work is particularly suitable for lengthy interviews, or for some sensitive subjects. The understanding that can be established between the interviewer and the person being interviewed (the respondent) can help to ensure that detailed and thorough information is obtained. By telephone. This is a fast-growing form of data collection, is somewhat less expensive per interview than face-to-face, and can provide data more quickly – in some cases, overnight. Telephone research would rarely be suitable for lengthy interviews, but it can be ideal for smaller-scale, fast turn-round projects both amongst the public and for business research. Both face-to-face and telephone research involve the most basic form of data gathering, talking to people. There is one other form of quantitative data collection that should be mentioned – postal and self-completion research, which is the cheapest form of quantitative research, though it can take a relatively long time to gather data by post. Self-completion questionnaires can be handed out, for example, at exhibitions, on aircraft, or in town centres, to get peopleà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s views. Self-completion questionnaires must be kept simple and the researcher has little control over whom, or how many people, return the form. Another form of quantitative research is omnibus surveys. These are useful for those with small budgets and relatively few questions to ask. Qualitative Research Qualitative research, though it cannot provide numerical data, provides understanding of how or why things are as they are. It can be used on its own or to help in the development of a questionnaire for a quantitative study. There is no fixed set of questions and therefore no assumptions about what is, or is not, important. Instead there is a list of topics, problems, or possibilities to be explored. The form and nature of the discussion is heavily influenced by the informants' own concerns or assumptions. Qualitative research is the way in which typical or relevant peoples' attitudes and beliefs can be explored, and ideas can be generated. It can be used for everything from testing reaction to a potential new advertising campaign, to exploring staff attitudes to a new management structure or procedure. There are various sorts of qualitative research, including the following. * Unstructured interviews with a single informant, based on a framework of themes and topics. The interview is adapted to the individual, and the interviewer feeds off and responds to the respondents' replies. * Focus groups (or group discussions) involve a similar approach but bring together a number of relevant people – typically about eight – and therefore benefit from the interaction between the different personalities and experiences in the group. I used quantitative research because I needed to find information quickly and easily, I think qualitative research would have been a lot more time consuming and will have used a lot of resources. I decided the best way to collect information about the market was to use a survey. A survey can't ask customers for their opinion. Only a fraction or sample of customers can be surveyed. To be useful, the sample chosen must be a representation of all consumers. In a random sample, every potential respondent has an equal chance of being chosen. Random numbers can be used to do this or it could be done by ‘picking people out of a hat'. It is often quite difficult to construct a truly random sample. So a cheaper and quicker method is to use systematic sample. This is where every 100th or 1000th person on a list such as the telephone book is chosen. A systematic sample is not truly random though and therefore the results may be less reliable. In a quota sample, the sample is broken down or stratified. One problem with a quota sample is that any people who fit the description can be asked to complete the survey. So Microsoft wanting to find 50 people aged 13 – 30 to complete a survey could ask the first 50 13 – 30 year olds who came out of Electronics Boutique in Bedford. This may not be very representative of all 13 – 30 years olds nationally. A stratified random sample may get round this problem. It is a quota sample where all the respondents, the people being interviewed, must be chosen at random. Microsoft would have to find some way of selecting people aged 13 – 30 through pure chance. I used a quota sample, I asked 50 people in Electronics Boutique my questionnaire. I used Electronics Boutique because a lot of people go in there to buy game consoles and other computer related products, and asking this people would give me a good idea of the target market. I think my data is quite reliable because the people I asked my questionnaire to are the people that are most likely to buy Microsoft's products. Price Pricing Strategies The product should be launched in November ready for the Christmas rush. The pricing strategy skimming should be used in the introduction and the growth stage of the product life cycle. Skimming is setting a high price initially and then lowering it later on. This is almost always used for products that incorporate new technology such as new DVD players and PCs. Some people are willing to pay high prices for new technology, the price of the X Box will be set high at first to catch this end of the market. By doing this Microsoft can maximise their profits and cover the costs of developing the X Box. When sales start to slow down Microsoft should lower the price and use a different pricing strategy. To ensure sales keep increasing half way though the growth stage Microsoft should change the pricing strategy from skimming to market orientated. This is where the price charged is based on analysis of the market and its characteristics. Market research might need to be undertaken again at this point to ensure that Microsoft knows what the customers are willing to pay. Market orientated pricing should be used at this point because the top end of the market is likely to be saturated, Microsoft will need to lower the price of the X Box slightly to provide for the people that aren't willing to pay as much. Using market orientated pricing will therefore help keep sales rising and the X Box will appeal to a broader market. When the sales of the X Box are slowing down it could be because of competition. This is when Microsoft will need to use competition based pricing because new games consoles will be being launched and the X Box wont be new technology anymore. Microsoft will need to lower the price a lot to compete with the new technology and keep people interested. Psychological pricing could be used throughout the life cycle. This is when a product is priced at 99p instead of a pound so that the customers automatically think it's cheaper. I don't think Microsoft will need to use cost based pricing with the X Box because Microsoft makes so much money off existing products going into debt wont be a problem. The X Box will soon make up for the research and developing costs in the growth stage of the life cycle. Penetration pricing also isn't appropriate for the X Box because new technology doesn't rise in price as it becomes more popular it starts off at a high price because of the cost of development. Price to be Set In the introduction stage of the life cycle the X Box should be priced at 299, in the growth stage the price should be lowered to about 249, when the market has been saturated the price should be lowered again to 199 and when the product goes into decline it should be priced between 99 and 149. Factors Affecting the Price > Cost of promotions and advertising > Cost of research and development > Customer's needs and wants > Competitors > Demand > Costs of distribution